The United States Was Justified in Dropping the Atomic...

On the 6th and 9th of August, 1945, the United States of America dropped the Atomic Bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The use of these bombs brought a quick end to World War 2, yet caused extensive damage to the two Japanese cities. There have often been disputes as to whether the USA was justified in the dropping of the atomic bombs because of the damage they caused, not only to the cities, but to the people of Japan as well. Many people believe that the USA should not have dropped the bombs because of the damage they caused, and they also claim that Japan was already defeated. However, Japan did not surrender, and prolonging the war was not an option for America, as it believed it would cause even more casualties, not only to American troops, but to Japan as well. Thus the USA was justified in dropping the bombs on Japan. America came into WW11 after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor (K) in 1941, and the war between Japan and the USA ended when the atomic bombs were dropped in 1945. Japan had a very strong army, which had an estimated 5 million men (B). The Japanese troops believed it was honourable to die for ones country, and made use of Kamikaze pilots as one of their war tactics (B). The use of the Kamikaze pilots by Japan caused extensive damage to Americas sea going forces, and because death was glorified, the American troops had no means to fight them. There had already been over 3 500 Kamikaze raids which had caused great damage to the AmericanShow MoreRelatedWhy Truman Chose to Drop the Atomic Bomb895 Words   |  4 PagesAmericas decision to use the atomic bomb on Japan was only done to assert our position over the Soviet Union, and Japans surrender was only an extra accomplishment of the attack. During the years 1939 to 1947, numerous conferences were held to discuss diplomatic matters, and the strive towards getting Japan to accept an unconditional surrender. The Japanese had already been weakened, and the military predicted that they would eventually be forced to surrender in a short amount of time. Even theRead MoreThe Atomic Bomb Of Hiroshima And Nagasaki1445 Words   |  6 PagesOn August 6th and 9th two atomic bombs were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The two bombings were the first and only time nuclear weaponry has been used in wartime. These bombs were the first of their kind, developed by the United States, Canada and Great Britain under the research development plan codenamed the ‘Manhattan Project. It is an important issue because there is much controversy over whether or not the atomic bombs should’ve been initially been dropped. Many sidesRead MoreThe Bombing Of The War Essay1230 Words   |  5 Pagesaround, and the bombs were dropped. Japan issued their surrender several days later. The bombings could be seen as an event that directly resulted in the end of the war, or merely accelerated it by as little as a few days. Numerous analyses by top United States Army officials say that Japan would have surrendered well before the end of the year even had the bomb not been used. One of these army officals, Major General Curtis Lemay of the air force, said that â€Å"the atomic bomb had nothing to doRead MoreHarry Trumans Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb1314 Words   |  6 PagesTo what extent was Harry Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki justified? A. Plan of Investigation Research Question: To what extent was Harry Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki justified? This investigation assesses President Harry Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on both Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It will determine whether or not his decision was justified. This investigation will scrutinize the reasons that made Harry TrumanRead MoreAround Seventy Eight Years Ago, World War Two Was Inevitable997 Words   |  4 PagesAround seventy eight years ago, World War Two was inevitable and would last for six years, while becoming one of the world’s greatest conflicts. With the catastrophic effects of The Great War, the further advancement of current technology and the advent of newer warfare, World War Two was set to be the turning point of the twentieth century. The war caused the Berlin wall to separate Germany, it indirectly caused the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. World War Two’s legacy includesRead MoreOn August 6, 1945, The United States Of America Dropped1173 Words   |  5 Pagesthe United States of America dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. For decades, there have been feuds relating to the justification of the bombing. Was the U.S justified? It depends on your vantage point. The United States was justified due to the unprovoked attack and bombing of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, which occurred three years prior to the bombing of Hiroshima, it was necessary to stop the war because it saved thousands of American lives. Until then, the fight had never been on United StatesRead MoreShould We Have Dropped The Atomic Bomb?1180 Words   |  5 PagesShould we have dropped the atomic bomb? On August 6, 1945, the United States of America dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. For decades, there have been feuds relating to the justification of the bombing. Was the U.S justified? It depends on your vantage point. The United States was justified due to the unprovoked attack and bombing of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, which occurred three years prior to the bombing of Hiroshima, it was necessary to stop the war because it saved thousands of AmericanRead MoreShould The Us Dropped Atomic Bombs On Japan?1183 Words   |  5 PagesShould the US dropped atomic bombs on Japan? By- Daniel Hernandez On August 6, 1945, the United States of America dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. For decades, there have been feuds relating to the justification of the bombing. Was the U.S justified? It depends on your opinion. The United States was justified due to the unprovoked attack and bombing of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, which occurred three years prior to the bombing of Hiroshima, it was necessary to stop the war because it savedRead More Drop The Bomb? Essay656 Words   |  3 Pages Atomic Bombs Dropped on Japan, Justified? nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;On August 6th and 9th of 1945 U.S. bombers dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, causing utter destruction and many deaths. These bombs were dropped as the Pacific battles of World War II were coming to an end. Soon after Japan surrendered, ending the war. But, was the use of atomic warfare necessary? Was it too harsh and cruel to the Japanese? The first question was whetherRead MoreThe Attack On Pearl Harbor1113 Words   |  5 Pagesrising sun. Only one day after, December 8, the United States Congress declared war on the Empire of Japan, sparking our involvement in World War Two. Only a couple years after the attack on Pearl Harbor, America was already on its way to creating the atomic bomb. By July of 1945, America was ready to test its first bomb and was successful. America had only two test drops before deciding to unleash the uncanningly deleterious weapon they had created on Japan August 6 and 9, 1945. Considering the thousands

Financial Issues of Car Buying Assignment Example

Essays on Financial Issues of Car Buying Assignment The paper "Financial Issues of Car Buying" is a wonderful example of an assignment on finance and accounting. I can spend a maximum of $4000 to buy a new car. This price has taken into consideration the price of registration and tax. As I m buying a new car, the price of fixing is included in the total price of the car. Thus no additional charge for fixing will be required.   I have selected the car as Chevrolet Impala 1LT and the cost of it is $2956. This car is very elegant and has a sophisticated look among other cars. The mileage of the car is 4 km/liter with a body style of Sedan. While the exterior body parts of the car are of Metallic Silver Ice color, but the interior side of the car is colored as dark titanium or jet black. The car has various unique characteristics like it has provided curtain head airbags for both the 1st and 2nd row and the wheel base is 112 inches. The car has the facility to control the speed proportion electronically with power steering and audio con trol buttons on it. Power windows facility and pressure of tires can be monitored through the tire specific technique. The audio system can be secured with passcode in the car and it has a connection point for wireless Bluetooth phone. Knee airbags are also there for the driver and the passenger to protect them from any kind of accident. It has a fuel capacity of 18.5 gallons and fuel consumption is lower than other cars and it is 21 mpg for the urban areas and 31 mpg for high roads (Cars.com, 2014). In cars.com the price of the car is $2956 while on the website of Kelley Blue Book the price for the same car is $28236- $28771.According to the price of Kelley Blue Book, the car is underpriced in the website of cars.com.It is surprising to see the wide difference between the prices of the car which is mentioned on the website of cars.com as compared to the price which is mentioned on the website of Kelly Blue Book. The value of the car is highly overpriced on the website of Kelly Blue Book as the price is in between $28236- $28771 and the price in cars.com of the same car is $2956.Chevrolet Impala 1LT has a mixture of security and safety features and thus this car is easy to insure. As the stability monitoring measures and above-mentioned airbags facilities are provided in the car thus it reduces both risks of accident and premium of the insurance. The average cost for insuring the car is near to $1200 per year. I need full coverage for the car and the minimum price is $1200 per year. I can save on the premiums of insurance rates by doing some research on different companies rather than researching for only one company. Different insurance quotes are needed to be compared with each for different insurance companies and then the lowest rate can be chosen from the options available because some insurance companies also provide discounts and incentives that other companies do not provide. Thus it is necessary to check out for all available options before choosing o ne.

Cleopatra Vii Essay Research Paper Cleopatra is free essay sample

Cleopatra Vii Essay, Research Paper Cleopatra is a throne name to many Queenss from Macedonia who ruled in Egypt. The most celebrated of these adult females was Cleopatra VII. She was the girl of Ptolemy XII Auletes, King of Egypt. Cleopatra VII lived from 69-30 B.C. and reigned as queen of Egypt from 51-30 B.C. ( Encyclopedia Encarta 99 ) . Cleopatra is said to be far from beautiful, despite her glamourous image today. Her image on antediluvian coins made her expression like she had a long aquiline olfactory organ and masculine characteristics. She is besides said to be really seductive with her enrapturing musical voice and exuded personal appeal. She was besides really intelligent and a great swayer. She spoke nine different linguistic communications. She was the lone Ptolemy Pharaoh who could really talk Egyptian ( Internet site, 2 ) . The Ptolemy household had ruled Egypt since 305 B.C. After the decease of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy I declared himself King of Egypt. The Ptolemy household was of Macedonian descent, but is said to be portion Greek and portion Iranian every bit good. Cleopatra s father s, Ptolemy XII, full name was Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes which means flute-player in Greek. He be gan governing in 80 B.C. and continued to govern until his decease in 51 B.C. Cleopatra s female parent is said to hold been Cleopatra V Tryphaena, who either died or disappeared in 69 B.C. Cleopatra had two older sisters ; Cleopatra VI and Berenice IV, and one younger sister, Arsinoe IV. She besides had two younger brothers Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, both of whom she had to get married. In 58 B.C. Berenice IV took over the land coercing her male parent, Ptolemy XII, to fly to Rome. She ruled Egypt until he regained the throne and so in 55 B.C. he had her beheaded. Cleopatra s other sister disappeared sometime between 58-55 B.C. Ptolemy XII named CleopatraVII and Ptolemy XIII as inheritors to the throne and when he died they took over. A regulation established by Ptolemy II stated that you had to get married your sibling if governing a state together. So Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra VII married, but purely as a regulation. Cleopatra VII was 18 and Ptolemy was merely 10 when they we re named King and Queen of Egypt in 51 B.C. ( From now on Cleopatra VII will be Cleopatra ) . For the most portion Cleopatra did most of the opinion. Meanwhile, Ptolemy served as a pet for his advisers. They would state him what to make. Finally, three old ages after Cleopatra had ruled they advised him to take entire control of the land. He went with his advisers and Cleopatra was exiled. Outside of the walls of Alexandria, the larboard metropolis of the land, in Syria Cleopatra began to build an ground forces for her retaliation. Meanwhile in Rome, Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great were contending against each other in a civil war. Pompey was Alliess of the Egyptians and fled to Egypt to seek out aid. Pothinus, one of Ptolemy s advisers, predicted that Caesar s triumph was inevitable, and he told Ptolemy XIII to hold Pompey beheaded in hopes that Caesar would take their side in the civil war between Cleopatra. So Ptolemy XIII had Pompey killed in forepart of his married woman by Lucius Septmus, his retainer at one clip. Pothinus had Pompey s caput saved for Julius Caesar to see when he arrived. When Caesar did arrive and they showed it to him, trusting that he would be pleased. However, they discovered that he was really fed up. Pompey was one time a friend, and he thought that the manner he was viciously butchered in forepart of his household was really disrespectful ( Internet site, 1 ) . Outside the walls Cleopatra knew she had to state Caesar what was truly go oning. She disguised herself, wrapped herself in a axial rotation of rug, and was carried into the palace. She knew that if anyone would catch her Ptolemy XIII would hold her beheaded. She made it up to the room where Caesar was remaining and when she fell out of the rug piece it is said that Caesar fell in love with her appeal. They stayed the dark together ( Internet site, 2 ) . The following forenoon Caesar decided to name an audience. Ptolemy XIII was shocked to happen Cleopatra at Caesar s si de. He stormed out of the castle shriek that he had been betrayed. Then, Caesar had Ptolemy arrested, but Pharaoh s ground forces attacked the castle. Therefore began what was subsequently called the Alexandrian War. The civil war between Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra had now turned into a war between Caesar and Ptolemy allied with Arsinoe IV. The war went on for six months. It ended when Pothinus was killed in a conflict, and Ptolemy XIII drowned in the Nile River seeking to get away. The metropolis of Alexandria surrendered to Caesar. Caesar held Arisnoe confined and restored Cleopatra to the throne. Again she was forced to get married her other brother, Ptolemy XIV ( Internet site, 2 ) . After the war, Cleopatra showed Caesar every pleasance and luxury she had to offer. This two-month trip included a circuit up the Nile River. Where it was said that she became pregnant. They would hold sailed to Ethiopia if Caesar s military personnels had agreed to follow him. Roman historian, Suctonius wrote. After the sail Caesar returned to Rome go forthing behind three hosts to look after Cesarean and Cleopatra. She gave birth to his boy, Caesarion, or besides known as Ptolemy XV. It was said that Caesar may non hold been Cesarean s male parent, but Caesar claimed him as his. A twelvemonth subsequently Caesar invited them to Rome. The two were received with great award in Rome and a aureate statue was dedicated by Caesar to Cleopatra and placed in the temple of Venus Genetrix. Then, while Cleopatra, Ptolemy XIV, and Cesarean were in Rome, Caesar paraded through Rome s streets with his captives, including Arisnoe ( Encyclopedia Americana # 7, P. 51 ) . They lived in Caesar s Villa for two old ages. The Romans were get downing to acquire upset by this excess matrimonial matter the two were holding. Caesar was already married to a adult female named Calpurnia. Romans thought that Caesar intended on go throughing a jurisprudence, which would let him to get married Cleopatra and do their boy his inheritor. He besides planned on going King of Rome. Caesar was assassinated at a Senate meeting in 44 B.C. Rome was so divided among three work forces. They were Octavian ( who subsequently became known as Augustus ) , Marcus Lepidus, and Marcus Antonius ( besides known as Mark Antony ) . Fearing for her life Cleopatra and her household returned to Alexandria. Shortly after the blackwash, Ptolemy XIV died. He is said to hold been poisoned by Cleopatra. She so put her boy Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor ( Caesarion ) on the throne with her. He was accepted as a swayer because at birth she had him recognized by priests of Hermon as the boy of t he God Amon. After the conflict of Phillippi, in 42 B.C. , Mark Antony called Cleopatra to Tarsus to set up a meeting for assisting him with his difference fiscal state of affairs. Cleopatra saw another opportunity to progress her power. She charmed Antony with her ways. She arrived in manner on a flatboat with a aureate root, purple canvass, and silver oars. The boat was sailed by her amahs dressed as sea nymphs, and she was dressed as the goddess Venus ( goddess of love ) . She was under a aureate canopy being fanned by male childs dressed as Cupid. He began to fall in love with her ( Internet site, 2 ) . He granted her every petition and even had her sister, Arsinoe, killed. Antony returned to Egypt with her and for a twelvemonth from 41-40 B.C. she was his kept woman, confidante, and comrade. However, he was compelled to return to Rome to carry through his responsibilities at that place. For four old ages they were separated. In 37 B.C. he sent for her to fall in him in Antioch where they were married. But Rome did non honour this matrimony because he was already wed to Octavian s sister, Octavia. Their twins were so born Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Antony granted Cleopatra portion of his districts in Syria. She so became pregnant once more with Ptolemy Philadelphus. The chitchat being spread around Caesar s land in Rome led charges being pressed on him. Finally, his powers were taken off from him. Cleopatra returned to Egypt. Finally, Antony divorced Octavia and went to be with Cleopatra. Octavian declared war on Antony and Cleopatra in 32 B.C. The two commanding officers of their ground forcess met in Actium to discourse the opinion of the Roman universe. Antony used Cleopatra s program so when the ships fled his ground forces surrendered and did non fly with him and Cleopatra to Alexandria. Back in Alexandria, Cleopatra could state that Antony s spirit was broken. It shortly became clear to her that her dreams of power could non come true wit h him at her side. They both tried to negociate with Octavian once more, but it proved to be unsuccessful. Antony returned to Rome. Cleopatra so locked herself in her room with two retainers and word got to Antony that she was purportedly dead ; he so committed self-destruction thought that she was gone. Then hearing the intelligence of his decease she went to plead with Octavian one time more, but it was unsuccessful. He held her prisoner where she excessively committed self-destruction. Some say she poisoned herself, others think that she died from snakebite. Cleopatra and Antony were buried beside each other at her last petition to Octavian ( Encyclopedia Americana # 7, P. 51 ) . Octavian put Caesarion to decease stoping the household s long regulation of Egypt. Egypt so became portion of the Roman Empire ( Encyclopedia Encarta 99 ) . The Ptolemy household ruled Egypt for many old ages and Cleopatra VII was the last swayer of the Ptolemic dynasty. This narrative is merely one of many narratives that make history from this clip and country. This event is a major factor in how Rome gained the land of Egypt. There are many other films and narratives that portray this narrative, every bit good as others, which illustrates history, love affair, rebelliousness, and craftiness of ancient swayers.

Professional Relationships an Example of the Topic Psychology Essays by

Professional Relationships Relationship Concepts Being professional, first and foremost, entails providing color-blind service to my clients employing the principles of my profession. Social workers, as explicated by George Appleby, Edgar Colon and Julia Hamilton, "are uniquely situated to serve the vulnerable" (5), and one of the factors that seem to reinforce the vulnerability of certain groups and sectors are biases and stereotypes used as the bases to justify marginalization or oppression of others. Nurturing my own set of prejudices would stand contrary to the principles that my profession upholds, and will hence hinder me from functioning effectively and from impartially delivering service to clients in need. From the "Melting Pot" days of America when the government and society had tried to create a mold for casting individuals into idealized, successfully assimilated Americans, the social movement throughout the decades had eventually turned to favor cultural diversity and multiculturalism. Need essay sample on "Professional Relationships" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Indeed, the United States today is one of the most culturally diverse countries that according to writer, Walter Benn Michaels, "diversity has become virtually a sacred concept in American life today." Yet despite this already accepted notion and existence of a multicultural society in which every individual is free to pursue the identity he or she feels most connected with, there remains issues that need to be addressed on both the personal and the societal level. One thing is certain to date, that cultural diversity still apparently affects how we, Americans, deal with one another. Cultural diversity forms a large part of our mental constructs, social attitudes and assumptions about our own identities as well as the uniqueness of people who in our opinion belong to a different cultural category (Michaels). Social Work and Client Roles Social workers, as explicated by George Appleby, Edgar Colon and Julia Hamilton, "are uniquely situated to serve the vulnerable" (5), and one of the factors that seem to reinforce the vulnerability of certain groups and sectors are biases and stereotypes used as the bases to justify marginalization or oppression of others. Nurturing my own set of prejudices would stand contrary to the principles that my profession upholds, and will hence hinder me from functioning effectively and from impartially delivering service to clients in need. Professor Stewart Asquith of the University of Edinburgh, in his literature review, "Role of the Social Worker in the 21st century, commented that the core values of social work are based on the "respect for the inherent worth and dignity of all people," such that practitioners are entrusted to deal with discrimination and diversity and approach social exclusion effectively. Personal beliefs that stem from cultural biases are not socially disadvantageous per se; what the social workers need to address are the manifestations of such beliefs, and eventually the ill-effects of the behavior that stems from prejudice. Social work, explains Asquith, is a commitment to what is right and just. It exists primarily to provide assistance, support and empowerment to those who bear the brunt of social inequalities. Therefore, as a student of social work, the awareness of cultural differences can help me internalize my calling, and use the knowledge I have to help quell persisting inequalities. Eventually, I hope to see my clients as purely humannot as male or female, white or black, have-less or have-more, educated or illiterate and so on. According to feminist writer, Melanie Wiber, who wrote the book Erect Men Undulating Women, gender is a social construct that is "central to the categories of personhood." The society, therefore, can make a woman vulnerable or relegate her to a disadvantaged position by creating limitations around her because of her gender. As a social work practitioner, I can help the victims of sexism by offering case-specific interventions that are based from the principles of psychology and sociology. Specifically, I intend to help clients overcome their own sense of powerlessness by inculcating to them how each individual has his or her inherent strength and will, and how everyone is valuable and worthy to become competent and successful. Ethical Issues with the Relationship Ethics is described simply as standards of right and wrong. It is what each individual must do in terms of rights and obligations, benefits and common good. One's ethical standards can evolve and as a practitioner involved in social work, I ought to be more aware of my own set of beliefs so that I can reflect on it vis--vis the principles of the social institution where I work. (Johner et al. in Younggren, 2002). There is a need to address ethical issues in social work. Interpersonal interventions are also one of the means to counter the influences of racial discrimination. As with the victims of gender inequality, the sufferers of racial prejudice need to break away from their own vulnerability and perceived powerlessness. Once again, this is easier said than done. The direct victims of diversity problems often find themselves shut out of opportunities that are perennially open to the mainstream, majority group. Hence, the role of the social work extends beyond the provider of empowerment and instructor of self-worth. The social worker can therefore assume more radical roles and advocate on behalf of the socially excluded, culturally diverse group. Finally, this boils down to the nucleus of social work, which is "dealing with failures in other social policy areas" (Asquith). To end, I chose gender and race because they are both particularly relevant to my persona and I intend to become a dedicated social worker who became inspired by the realities happening in my own culture and gender. REFERENCES Appleby, George A., Edgar Colon and Julia Hamilton. Diversity, Oppression, and Social Functioning: Peron-In-Environment Assessment and Intervention. 2nd ed.Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 2001. Asquith, Stewart. The Role of the Social Worker in the 21st Century. 23 July 2007. Michaels, Walter Benn. "The Trouble with Diversity:" Two Great Liberal Preoccupations-Our Celebration of Cultural Difference and the Fight against Inequality-Go Hand in Hand, Right? Wrong. Incredibly Wrong." American Prospect 22.3 (2006, September): 18++ 23 July 2007. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5017054374 Randy Johner, PhD Candidate, Faculty of Social Work, University of Regina, Regina,Saskatchewan, Canada 23 July 2007. Wiber, Melanie G.. Erect Men Undulating Women: The Visual Images of Gender, "Race" and Progress. Wilfrid Laurier University. 1997.

XNapster Essay Research Paper XNapsterThe infamous Napster free essay sample

X-Napster Essay, Research Paper X-Napster The ill-famed Napster under onslaught for it s pirating of music from celebrated musician s demands to be shut down. Piracy is a major issue of moral criterions, right, and incorrect in the amusement universe. Napster is good known for it s sharing of MP3 files through the Internet ; taking, receiving, and bootlegging. Over 70 % of college pupils said they use Napster at least one time a month. The bulk of its users are cognizant that Napster is an illegal bootlegging web site, the federal authorities says. The U.S. Copyright Office says Napster # 8217 ; s operations are clearly illegal under the really jurisprudence Napster hopes will do its senior executives and comfortable investors filthy rich which was written in 1992 stating that if a individual wants to roll up music to a personal Cadmium for ego so its Oklahoma. But in that jurisprudence there was neer any reference of legal airing to obtain the music. We will write a custom essay sample on XNapster Essay Research Paper XNapsterThe infamous Napster or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I oppose Napster because they have no coherent or feasible program to counterbalance creative persons. If Napster makes money off the airing of an creative persons copyrighted stuff so the creative person should take part in those net incomes. ( Presently Napster does non do a net income, nevertheless the fact that they raised at something like $ 40,000,000 in capital to finance their operation suggests that their investors evidently intend to do a net income one twenty-four hours ) . But the million dollar inquiry is ; should Napster be shut down because of it s illegal sharing of files? ? The reply is YES. BURNED CD s are a major issue in the U.S. To download from a web site, and salvage it to a Cadmium, or your computing machine. Personal music a individual has made up, or created by himself is legal to salvage. But copyrighted music on the other manus is illegal. Commercial wireless Stationss generate gross off of the usage of copyrighted stuff. Through longstanding agreements with BMI and ASCAP a part of that money ( nevertheless little ) is shared with the songsters. Why doesn # 8217 ; t Napster try to do a similar agreement with creative persons? The fact that Napster ( now a multi-million dollar corporation ) has refused to make so and fells behind the fiction that they merely put music fans in touch with one another who so portion files. If you turned off the Napster waiters, the Napster plan would be useless. No 1 could # 8220 ; portion # 8221 ; files. Conversely without the chance of illicitly downloading music, picture and package for free no 1 would utilize this service. Napster lawyers have stated that the company is # 8220 ; non responsible for illegal use # 8221 ; of its service. Napster as a company has dramatically shirked any and all duty for the usage of its plan. Peoples should truly believe twice approximately enriching such an irresponsible corporation. Many Napster users complain that Cadmiums are excessively expensive. That sometimes they merely want to purchase one vocal and non a who lupus erythematosus album, and that singles are seldom available or excessively expensive. I agree. There should be an alternate cheaper manner of purchasing a vocal that does non affect this really inefficient system of Cadmium makers, distribution companies, and retail record shops. I besides believe that such an surrogate system based upon downloading, and uploading vocals off the Internet is really executable. Resistance by the major record labels, and tribunals has been a important obstruction. Artists should be given a pick as to whether they want to hold their vocals be a portion of such a system. If Fred Durst and Courtney Love ( instrumentalists ) want their vocals to be a portion of such a system that # 8217 ; s mulct. But what if an creative person does non desire their vocals # 8220 ; shared # 8221 ; ? With simple package filters Napster could at least bound and deter the sharing of vocals by creative persons who opted out of the system. The fact that Napster makes no attempt to make so uncover the true nature of this corporation. Artists like Metalica, 112, and Dr. Dre have all requested that their music be banned from Napster s waiters. Napster has the ability to take down the demand for CD # 8217 ; s. The plan makes any song of all time made available for free. It disregards copyright Torahs and enables a individual to download one # 8217 ; s favourite music into a format that takes up small room on a hardrive. If you merely go to any university in the state you ll understand the issue. Students do non purchase CD # 8217 ; s. Recent surveies have shown music shops around college campuses have had their gross revenues cut after the oncoming of Napster. Students do necessitate experience the demand to tweak down 15 dollars for a Cadmium, when they can acquire all the vocals they want for free. The high-velocity college webs enable pupils to download vocals in merely seconds. Cadmium burners have besides helped Napster. Peoples can download the vocals from Napster, so they can set the burnt vocals onto any CD # 8217 ; s of their pick. They end up with mixes of their favourite vocals and everybody appears happy-except for the sets whose music is copied, and the record labels whose net incomes are diminishing Napster has caught the attending of the major music industries and several cases have been filed to halt Napster # 8217 ; s forum from giving off free music. Until a declaration the job can merely acquire worse. The popularity of overseas telegram and DSL modems will do computing machines who are non based on college webs still able to download music rapidly. The phone modem still takes about 20 proceedingss to download vocals ; nevertheless the overseas telegram modem takes about 15 seconds. Once the office and place users have the ability to to the full take advantage of Napster # 8217 ; s characteristics, the music industry will truly get down to lose net incomes. Napster presents a job to the record industry and with the popularity of high-velocity connexions, it appears the job can merely turn.

The Black Exodus Into Time essays

The Black Exodus Into Time essays We are living in a time of modernization. The impact of modernization has had a tremendous affect on the black community of America. Through this modernization, we have created a struggle among the search for black identity. For years, we (Blacks) have been struggling to empower the black community by incorporating our race into the powers that be or the white community. In our time of struggle, hopelessness has taken over the mindset of many Black-Americans. We still have a deep sense of alienation, despair, and uncertainty among our culture. The idea of black identity can be looked at through many different aspects, but there is only two critical ways of really looking at it in my mind. Those two categories are that of nationalist and assimilationist, black-identified or white-identified respectively (Hooks, 4). Looking at this idea of black identity, we can pose a basis of how all people of the middle-class black community can collect together to further involve ourselves i n the white mans society as a group collectively to achieve a higher level of respect and understanding. To begin this new social-revolutionary period, the help of the black-middle class people is needed. The white-identified black persons or assimilationists need to reassess their relationship with this pop-culture and rejoin the resistance struggle along side the brothers of color until our people as a whole is better accepted by the society of today (Hooks, 4). The time is now for the final step of the advancement of the black people in todays society. This new revolution has been going on for years now, from our educated brothers in Africa, to people like Denmark Vesey, all the way up to the middle class Blacks or the Aristocrats of color. According to Bell Hooks, this revolution is dependent on the educated middle class Blacks, the intellectuals. We may look to the white-identified black persons for help, but it may be to no avail. ...

Forensics Research Project 2 Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Forensics Project 2 - Research Paper Example It can be stated that the aforesaid tactics would generally provide broader explanation to various legal aspects relating to the preservation of a computer and its data. Key Steps to Ensuring Legal Success in a Courtroom in a Forensics Case In order to determine the key steps ensuring legal success in a courtroom in a forensics case, it can be affirmed from a broader outlook that forensic readiness is often represented as the capability of an organization to increase its prospective to use modern digital evidences and at the same time, reducing the costs of an investigation by a certain degree. In this similar concern, the key steps towards ensuring legal success in a courtroom in a forensics case have been outlined below. Describing the business circumstances that need digital evidence Identifying current sources & different kind of potential evidence Determining the evidence based collection obligation Establishing a strategy for secure storage plan & handling of possible evidence Identifying the circumstances when a full formal investigation need to be initiated Documenting an evidence-related case explaining the incident and its manifold impact Ensuring legal appraisal to take necessary actions in response to the happening of any incident (Rowlingson, 2004). Conditions That Require Inclusion of Law Enforcement With regard to conclude the conditions that require inclusion of law enforcement, it can be affirmed that computer crime may be conducted through the violation of the policies associated with information technology relating to the preservation of a computer and its data. Generally, there pertain numerous conditions of crime related to the information technology that lays the requirement of the inclusion of law enforcement agencies. In this regard, according to Section 13 of the Cybercrime Prevention Act 2012, law can be enforced against any individual linked with preservation of computer data. The truthfulness of traffic data & subscriber information relating to communication services shall be preserved for a minimum of six months. Moreover, content information shall likewise be preserved for a period of six months from the date of the order received from law enforcement authorities obliging its preservation. It can be stated that law enforcement system may provide extensions for the conduct of the aforesaid activities. It has been apparently observed that one of the conditions that require inclusion of law enforcement is that once computer data is preserved, conveyed or stored by a service provider, the data would be accessible only to authorized users It is the service provider who requires to preserve digital data as well as to keep those confidential and most significantly maintain their compliance by a certain degree. It is to be affirmed that if any computer operator violates or not comply with the order provided by the service provider, then the respective task will be regarded as a crime as and the operator will be punis hed under section 13 of the Cybercrime Prevention Act 2012 (The Office of the President of the Philippines, 2012). Possible Actions to Protect the Employer In accordance with the mentioned case, one of the possible actions could be the introduction of various data prevention plan which might protect the employer by a certain degree. In this similar concern, it can be affirmed that the employer can take the help of a law enforcement group for collecting as well as

The Impact of Structural Adjustment Programs on Women in the Essay

The Impact of Structural Adjustment Programs on Women in the Philippines - Essay Example Under the first SAP implemented for the Philippines in 1981, the objective was to reshape a largely protectionist regime under the Marcos dictatorship into an export-led economy through trade and financial liberalization and tight credit policy. However, subsequent events proved the SAP strategy wrong, as evidenced by the depreciation of the Philippine peso by 10 percent in 1983, double-digit inflation and unemployment, declining wages and the unimproved quality of exports due mainly to low production costs and cheap labor. During these years, political opposition to the martial law government of Marcos was escalating, which became a nationwide disturbance when top opposition leader Benigno Aquino was assassinated in 1984 by suspected Marcos hit men. This led to massive capital flight that forced Marcos to call a snap election in 1985, in which the widow of Aquino emerged victorious. As the GDP began to grow by a moderate 5.6 percent under the second IMF-WB program undertaken for the Aquino government (Lim & Montes, 2001), the economy suffered one setback after another as Marcos loyalists held disruptive rallies and renegade soldiers separately staged a series of military coups from 1987 to 1989. This paper examines how SAP failed the Philippines, specifically how and why its required policy reforms marginalized women in the Philippines in terms of meeting their rights to education, health and livelihood. 2. How SAP Worked Against Philippine Women The SAP requirement for an export-led strategy of economic growth created shifts in the use of land and other resources, reorganized production processes, and changed production relations as well as existing social institutions (Sparr, 1994). This was generally how SAP worked to the disadvantage of Philippine women. On land use, for example, one of the main thrusts of SAP is to remove subsidies from agricultural production intended for local consumption and to re-channel the funds instead to the production of cash crops for the export market (Sparr, 1994). Rural women in the Philippines augment the meager income of their farmer-husbands by engaging in the backyard production of crops that can be sold in the local market. Moreover, women share farm work with their men especially in seeding and harvesting. When the incentives for growing crops with a ready market were taken away, the women lost an important source of income to the detriment of her family (Elson, 1995). The problem was that government promoted export production although world prices were extremely low (Lim & Montes, 2001). In the Philippines, land was transferred from the traditional crops of rice and corn to the production of sugar cane, bananas and pineapples with a concomitant increase in the size of holdings and greater mechanization but also a rise in the number of landless households (Elson, 1995). The main result was to further marginalize women in crop production as they are largely excluded from sugar cultivation. Rural women in the Philippines farm for home production and the local markets and rarely is it done for the export

Tourism in Myanmar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Tourism in Myanmar - Essay Example The case of Myanmar is one which shows how negative impressions of traditional media have led to a lack of tourism. The conditions of the country are known for political unrest, tyranny and social communism, all which have stopped the tourist industry. Currently, Myanmar is interested in opening the doors to tourism, specifically to build the economy and to develop a global openness required. The need to change the tourist perspectives; however, is limited by the negative impressions. To change this, the use of social media can be used with strategies that develop positive impressions on the cultural and social activities that one can enjoy in the region. By creating a social media strategy, there will be the ability to reach a larger target market while creating interactions and developments with the tourism and travel industry. Introduction The ability to reach current target markets is one which is no longer dependent on brick and mortar stores and traditional advertising. To reac h the needed areas, there is the need to create more alternatives with the use of online marketing, specifically with the current trends that are available. Social media is one of the areas which invites new opportunities for advertising while ensuring that the correct target market is met. This paper will look at the marketing of a mystical country, Myanmar, with the use of social media. ... The problems with the country are based on multi – faceted perspectives that come from the political and social agendas that are in the area. The problems are based on political issues, interests and agendas that have turned tourists away from the region. Many look at the area as corrupt while other tourists do not regard the place as a destination because of the political and cultural system. The ability to be open for tourism is not a primary concern in the area, making it difficult for travelers to move through the region while finding the best outlets for the travel desired. These particular problems are continuous with the references such as the area being the land of fear, specifically because of the political regime and social closure that is surrounding the area (Henderson, 2010). The development of Myanmar to the current date is one which is continuing to follow this trend, leading to a large number of individuals to not travel into the area. The socialist economy and political agenda is followed by the closure within the country for travel. However, the current changes into a global economy and into alterations with the political and economic system are also indicating that there is the need to open Myanmar to travel and to alter the political and economic perspectives of the country (Toshihiro, 2010). In current years, they have opened to tourism with the recognition that Burma needs to expand into offering more opportunities for expansion in this area. The movement has opened to an average of 3,000 from China visiting the area in 2011, which is a 33% increase from past years. The global number of visitors has increased to 792,000 travelers, which is inclusive of a

Vicarious Traumatization Concept Analysis

Vicarious Traumatization Concept Analysis Periods of active investigation have observed throughout this review of the literature on psychological trauma and little systematic findings have been notorious (Pearlman and Mac Ian (1995). Despite that Pearlman and Saakvitine, (1995a) mentioned that therapists appeared to be attracted to working with traumatized population. In spite of this assumption, there are others studies that have evaluated the influence of gender as possible cause to a vicarious traumatization; but, no evidence have been found indicating that gender plays an active role in developing vicarious trauma (Nelson-Gardell Harris, 2003; Pearlman Mac lan, 1995). On the other hand, a history of prior traumatization in mental health workers or practitioners may be a risk factor. Cunningham (2003) indicated that a relationship between professionals having a reduced sense of personal safety and a higher levels of exposure to traumatic materials, especially if they had experienced sexual abuse themselves. Nelson-Gardell and Harris (2003) revised multiple cause potential risk factors in the population of child protection workers; and, discovered that a history of emotional abuse and sexual abuse associated with an increased risk of developing secondary traumatic stress. In 2004, Kadambnd Truscott did a comparison with mental health workers, who worked with sexual abuse survivors, cancer patients, and practitioners and found no differences in the degree of vicarious trauma among these diverse groups. According to these investigators, these special populations, who are perceived as highly vulnerable and depending on the nature of the trauma, dealt w ith a possible cause that might contribute to the degree of risk for practitioners or workers in the mental health field. Kadambi and Truscott (2004) clarified there is limited and contradictory evidence for this assumption. Proximity to traumatic events seems to increase the cause of developing vicarious traumatization. Even though, results of research with criminal lawyers suggested that evidence have shown that the prolonged exposure to traumatic materials is associated with a higher increased risk of developing vicarious traumatization (Vrklevski Franklin, 2008; Musa Hamid, 2008). Vrklevski Franklin (2008) suggested that the cause of having a history of several traumas in their personal histories and proximity to the traumatic event could be one of the causes of exposing themselves to a higher risk of developing vicarious trauma symptoms. Ultimately, the workplace environment has been considered as a potential cause risk factor. Professionals who work for the public sector seemed to find themselves at a higher risk of developing vicarious traumatization, than those working in the private practices (Vredenburgh, Carlozzi Stein, 1999). By 2004, Goldsmith, Barlow, and Freyd suggested that workers of public agencies might also be exposed to a higher percentage of traumatized clients. This could lead to an effect on higher caseloads, inadequate or non-existent resources, and more complicated clients. They also suggested that agency workers might be exposed to an increased percentage of traumatized clients (Goldsmith, Barlow Freyd, 2004; Cougle, Resnick Kilpatrick, 2009). Boscarino, Figley and Adams (2004) suggested that clients were more likely to experience multiple environmental stressors, like poverty, unemployment and exposure to crime, as well as fewer social supports and higher rates of client comorbidity. Nevertheless, the long work hours could also appear to be one of the causes of risk factors in developing vicarious traumatization, as the caseloads with higher numbers of traumatized individuals. Newell and MacNeil (2011) in their research, studied workers who were exposed to traumatic stories or clients’ with traumatic stories at the veteran’s hospital, and revealed that consistent evidence that workplace factors can increase practitioners risks of developing vicarious traumatization. In comparison to other potential risk factors, Kadami and Truscott (2008) researched practitioners who work with sexual abuse victims in Canada, reported that the most important factors in causing therapist’s perceptions of vicarious trauma in their workplace were included the lack of support, long hours of work, high caseloads and limited resources. Their research revealed that exposure to consistently, detailed factors of the trauma, societal injustice, and exposure to human cruelty and countertransference or highly emotional reactions within the practitioners working with sexual abuse victims were denoted. On the other hand, Kadami and Truscott (2008) pointed out that those practitioners who were not working with sexual abuse victims did not score significantly different on registering vicarious traumatization with the others Canada professionals. Consequently, this raises another collateral effect that brings about an ethical issue. Trauma practitioners in addressing their countertransference reactions, protect the client and themselves. By not doing so, the effects are likely to have an undesirable impact on the therapists’ relationships with clients, personal and professional life (Trippany, White-Kress and Wilcoxon, 2004). However, as a cause and effect of the phenomenon of vicarious traumatization, Srdanovic (2007) and Hill (2003) have researched among therapists who have been working victims of sexual violence and other traumatic events. In reviewing the cognitive, emotional and behavioral reactions to being a victimized individual that there have uncovered several others dynamics at the personal level that might be influencing (Hill, 2003). Nevertheless, its psychological effects remain the same, regardless of the type of population, ethnicity, age or working responsibilities. Another assumption that can cause vicarious traumatization symptoms is pointed out to the workplace cultural factors that appears to interact as an important role in the development or at risk factor symptoms for a vicarious victimization. Schauben and Frazier (1995) highlighted that a lack of a larger support systems contributes to the development of trauma-related problems for practitioners or workers in mental health. These researchers argued that cultures that discourage the expression of emotion, autonomy, and self-care place employees increased the risk of vicarious traumatization throughout the establishment of a dysfunctional institutional norm. Those practitioners who work within these institutions, according to Schauben and Frazier (1995) work in an unhealthy cultural norm, because not only discourage self-care, but, also discourage individuals from these cultures from being supportive to one another. These individuals present a tendency to internalize these dysfunctional n orms and invalidate their need to self-protect and avoid the personal impact they may experience by being exposed to these traumas. Pearlman and Mac Ian (1995) strongly support their argument that trauma practitioners need to active seeking professional consultation and support in order to transform their emotional, self-esteem, cognitive and behavioral reactions to the collateral effects of trauma work (Pearlman Saakvitine, 1995a; Devilly, Wright Varker, 2009). Since 2005, Marriage and Marriage focused on the importance of therapists on being aware of their feelings, therefore, using their diagnostic and therapeutic awareness for their benefit and the client. Furthermore, Toren (2008) during her research process explained that working with traumatized population most of the time can become rewarding effect for the therapist. The limited research on the evidence remains unclear and limited. The only variable that remains consistent with all the literature review is the need for education among experienced and non-experienced practitioners (Cunningham, 2003; Newell MacNeil, 2010). The lack of proper standardized instruments to measure these effects, and its variables are lacking. As well as, it becomes difficult assessing which ethnic population is more affected than others (Newell MacNeil, 2010). Once again, the debate, of having clear and consistent definitions for various theoretical constructs. This continues to indicating that, even though, there have been various attempts to provide new literature that conceptualizes the phenomenon of vicarious trauma and others theoretical constructs, such as, countertransference and compassion fatigue the overlapping issue continues. The research evidence indicates that the phenomenon of vicarious traumatization were found in anecdotal recordings by trauma therap ists, indicating that affected practitioners and clients (Sexton, 1999).

Kolb Learning Style Inventory

The Kolb Learning Style Inventory—Version 3. 1 2005 Technical Speci? cations Alice Y. Kolb Experience Based Learning Systems, Inc. David A. Kolb Case Western Reserve University May 15, 2005 Abstract The Kolb Learning Style Inventory Version 3. 1 (KLSI 3. 1), revised in 2005, is the latest revision of the original Learning Style Inventory developed by David A. Kolb. Like its predecessors, KLSI 3. 1 is based on experiential learning theory (Kolb 1984) and is designed to help individuals identify the way they learn from experience.This revision includes new norms that are based on a larger, more diverse, and more representative sample of 6977 LSI users. The format, items, scoring and interpretative booklet remain identical with KLSI 3. The technical speci? cations are designed to adhere to the standards for educational and psychological testing developed by the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measureme nt in Education (1999). Section 1 of the technical speci? cations describes the conceptual foundations of the LSI 3. in the theory of experiential learning (ELT). Section 2 provides a description of the inventory that includes its purpose, history, and format. Section 3 describes the characteristics of the KLSI 3. 1 normative sample. Section 4 includes internal reliability and test-retest reliability studies of the inventory. Section 5 provides information about research on the internal and external validity for the instrument. Internal validity studies of the structure of the KLSI 3. 1 using correlation and factor analysis are reported.External validity includes research on demographics, educational specialization, concurrent validity with other experiential learning assessment instruments, aptitude test performance, academic performance, experiential learning in teams, and educational applications.  © Copyright 2005: Experience Based Learning Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 1. CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATION—EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY AND INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES The Kolb Learning Style Inventory differs from other tests of learning style and personality used in education by being based on a comprehensive theory of learning and development.Experiential learning theory (ELT) draws on the work of prominent twentieth century scholars who gave experience a central role in their theories of human learning and development-notably John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, Jean Piaget, William James, Carl Jung, Paulo Freire, Carl Rogers, and others-to develop a holistic model of the experiential learning process and a multi-linear model of adult development. The theory, described in detail in Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (Kolb 1984), is built on six propositions that are shared by these scholars. . Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes. To improve learning in higher education, the primary focus should be on engaging students in a process that best enhances their learning —a process that includes feedback on the effectiveness of their learning efforts. â€Å"†¦ education must be conceived as a continuing reconstruction of experience: †¦ the process and goal of education are one and the same thing. † (Dewey 1897: 79) 2. All learning is relearning.Learning is best facilitated by a process that draws out the students’ beliefs and ideas about a topic so that they can be examined, tested, and integrated with new, more re? ned ideas. 3. Learning requires the resolution of con? icts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world. Con? ict, differences, and disagreement are what drive the learning process. In the process of learning, one is called upon to move back and forth between opposing modes of re? ection and action and feeling and thinking. 4. Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world.It is not just the result of cognit ion but involves the integrated functioning of the total person—thinking, feeling, perceiving, and behaving. 5. Learning results from synergetic transactions between the person and the environment. In Piaget’s terms, learning occurs through equilibration of the dialectic processes of assimilating new experiences into existing concepts and accommodating existing concepts to new experience. 6. Learning is the process of creating knowledge. ELT proposes a constructivist theory of learning whereby social knowledge is created and recreated in the personal knowledge of the learner.This stands in contrast to the â€Å"transmission† model on which much current educational practice is based, where pre-existing ? xed ideas are transmitted to the learner. ELT de? nes learning as â€Å"the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience† (Kolb 1984: 41). The ELT model portrays two dialectically related modes of grasping experience-Concrete Experience (CE) and Abstract Conceptualization (AC)-and two dialectically related modes of transforming experience-Re? ctive Observation (RO) and Active Experimentation (AE). Experiential learning is a process of constructing knowledge that involves a creative tension among the four learning modes that is responsive to contextual demands. This process is portrayed as an idealized learning cycle or spiral where the learner â€Å"touches all the bases†Ã¢â‚¬â€experiencing, re? ecting, thinking, and acting-in a recursive process that is responsive to the learning situation and what is being learned. Immediate or concrete experiences are the basis for observations and re? ections. These re? ctions are assimilated and distilled into abstract concepts from which new implications for action can be drawn. These implications can be actively tested and serve as guides in creating new experiences (Figure 1). ELT proposes that this idealized learning cycle will vary by individuals’ learning style and learning context. 2 LSI Technical Manual Concrete Experience Testing Implications of Concepts in New Situations Observation and Reflections Formation of Abstract Concepts and Generalization Figure 1. The experiential learning cycle In The art of changing the brain: Enriching teaching by exploring the biology f learning, James Zull, a biologist and founding director of CWRU’s University Center for Innovation in Teaching and Education (UCITE), sees a link between ELT and neuroscience research, suggesting that this process of experiential learning is related to the process of brain functioning as shown in Figure 2. â€Å"Put into words, the ? gure illustrates that concrete experiences come through the sensory cortex, re? ective observation involves the integrative cortex at the back, creating new abstract concepts occurs in the frontal integrative cortex, and active testing i nvolves the motor brain.In other words, the learning cycle arises from the structure of the brain. † (Zull 2002: 18-19) 3 Figure 2. The experiential learning cycle and regions of the cerebral cortex. Reprinted with permission of the author (Zull 2002) ELT posits that learning is the major determinant of human development and that how individuals learn shapes the course of their personal development. Previous research (Kolb 1984) has shown that learning styles are in? uenced by personality type, educational specialization, career choice, and current job role and tasks. Yamazaki (2002, 2004a) has recently identi? d cultural in? uences as well. The ELT developmental model (Kolb 1984) de? nes three stages: (1) acquisition, from birth to adolescence, where basic abilities and cognitive structures develop; (2) specialization, from formal schooling through the early work and personal experiences of adulthood, where social, educational, and organizational socialization forces shape th e development of a particular, specialized learning style; and (3) integration in midcareer and later life, where nondominant modes of learning are expressed in work and personal life.Development through these stages is characterized by increasing complexity and relativism in adapting to the world and by increased integration of the dialectic con? icts between AC and CE and AE and RO. Development is conceived as multi-linear based on an individual’s particular learning style and life path—development of CE increases affective complexity, of RO increases perceptual complexity, of AC increases symbolic complexity, and of AE increases behavioral complexity.The concept of learning style describes individual differences in learning based on the learner’s preference for employing different phases of the learning cycle. Because of our hereditary equipment, our particular life experiences, and the demands of our present environment, we develop a preferred way of choosin g among the four learning modes. We resolve the con? ict between being concrete or abstract and between being active or re? ective in patterned, characteristic ways.Much of the research on ELT has focused on the concept of learning style, using the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) to assess individual learning styles (Kolb 1971, 1985, 1999). While individuals tested on the LSI show many different patterns of scores, previous research with the instrument has identi? ed four learning styles that are associated with different approaches to learning—Diverging, Assimilating, Converging, and Accommodating. The following summary of the four basic learning styles is based on both research and clinical observation of these patterns of LSI scores (Kolb1984, 1999a). LSI Technical Manual An individual with diverging style has CE and RO as dominant learning abilities. People with this learning style are best at viewing concrete situations from many different points of view. It is labeled Di verging because a person with it performs better in situations that call for generation of ideas, such as a brainstorming session. People with a Diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, have broad cultural interests, and tend to specialize in the arts.In formal learning situations, people with the Diverging style prefer to work in groups, listening with an open mind to different points of view and receiving personalized feedback. An individual with an assimilating style has AC and RO as dominant learning abilities. People with this learning style are best at understanding a wide range of information and putting it into concise, logical form. Individuals with an Assimilating style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. Generally, people with this style ? d it more important that a theory have logical soundness than practical value. The Assimilating learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through. An individual with a converging style has AC and AE as dominant learning abilities. People with this learning style are best at ? nding practical uses for ideas and theories. They have the ability to solve problems and make decisions based on ? ding solutions to questions or problems. Individuals with a Converging learning style prefer to deal with technical tasks and problems rather than with social issues and interpersonal issues. These learning skills are important for effectiveness in specialist and technology careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer to experiment with new ideas, simulations, laboratory assignments, and practical applications. An individual with an accommodating style has CE and AE as do minant learning abilities.People with this learning style have the ability to learn from primarily â€Å"hands-on† experience. They enjoy carrying out plans and involving themselves in new and challenging experiences. Their tendency may be to act on â€Å"gut† feelings rather than on logical analysis. In solving problems, individuals with an Accommodating learning style rely more heavily on people for information than on their own technical analysis. This learning style is important for effectiveness in action-oriented careers such as marketing or sales.In formal learning situations, people with the Accommodating learning style prefer to work with others to get assignments done, to set goals, to do ? eld work, and to test out different approaches to completing a project. 5 FACTORS THAT SHAPE AND INFLUENCE LEARNING STYLES The above patterns of behavior associated with the four basic learning styles are shaped by transactions between people and their environment at ? ve different levels—personality, educational specialization, professional career, current job role, and adaptive competencies.While some have interpreted learning style as a personality variable (Garner 2000; Furnam, Jackson, and Miller 1999), ELT de? nes learning style as a social psychological concept that is only partially determined by personality. Personality exerts a small but pervasive in? uence in nearly all situations; but at the other levels, learning style is in? uenced by increasingly speci? c environmental demands of educational specialization, career, job, and tasks skills. Table 1 summarizes previous research that has identi? ed how learning styles are determined at these various levels. Table 1.Relationship Between Learning Styles and Five Levels of Behavior Behavior Level Personality types Educational Specialization Professional Career Current Jobs Adaptive Competencies Diverging Introverted Feeling Arts, English History Psychology Social Service Arts Personal j obs Valuing skills Assimilating Introverted Intuition Mathematics Physical Science Sciences Research Information Information jobs Thinking skills Converging Extraverted Thinking Engineering Medicine Engineering Medicine Technology Technical jobs Decision skills Accommodating Extraverted Sensation Education Communication Nursing Sales Social Service Education Executive jobs Action skills Personality Types Although the learning styles of and learning modes proposed by ELT are derived from the works of Dewey, Lewin, and Piaget, many have noted the similarity of these concepts to Carl Jung’s descriptions of individuals’ preferred ways for adapting in the world.Several research studies relating the LSI with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) indicate that Jung’s Extraversion/Introversion dialectical dimension correlates with the Active/Re? ective dialectic of ELT, and the MBTI Feeling/Thinking dimension correlates with the LSI Concrete Experience/ Abstract Concep tualization dimension. The MBTI Sensing type is associated with the LSI Accommodating learning style, and the MBTI Intuitive type with the LSI Assimilating style. MBTI Feeling types correspond to LSI Diverging learning styles, and Thinking types to Converging styles. The above discussion implies that the Accommodating learning style is the Extraverted Sensing type, and the Converging style the Extraverted Thinking type.The Assimilating learning style corresponds to the Introverted Intuitive personality type, and the Diverging style to the Introverted Feeling type. Myers (1962) descriptions of these MBTI types are very similar to the corresponding LSI learning styles as described by ELT (Kolb 1984, 83-85). Educational Specialization Early educational experiences shape people’s individual learning styles by instilling positive attitudes toward speci? c sets of learning skills and by teaching students how to learn. Although elementary education is generalized, an increasing proc ess of specialization begins in high school and becomes sharper during the college years. This specialization in the realms of social knowledge in? ences individuals’ orientations toward learning, resulting in particular relations between learning styles and early training in an educational specialty or discipline. For example, people specializing in the arts, history, political science, English, and psychology tend to have Diverging learning styles, while those majoring 6 LSI Technical Manual in more abstract and applied areas such as medicine and engineering have Converging learning styles. Individuals with Accommodating styles often have educational backgrounds in education, communications, and nursing, and those with Assimilating styles in mathematics and physical sciences. Professional Career A third set of factors that shape learning styles stems from professional careers.One’s professional career choice not only exposes one to a specialized learning environment, but it also involves a commitment to a generic professional problem, such as social service, that requires a specialized adaptive orientation. In addition, one becomes a member of a reference group of peers who share a professional mentality and a common set of values and beliefs about how one should behave professionally. This professional orientation shapes learning style through habits acquired in professional training and through the more immediate normative pressures involved in being a competent professional. Research over the years has shown that social service and arts careers attract people with a Diverging learning style. Professions in the sciences and information or research have people with an Assimilating learning style.The Converging learning styles tends to be dominant among professionals in technology-intensive ? elds such as medicine and engineering. Finally, the Accommodating learning style characterizes people with careers in ? elds such as sales, social service , and education. Current Job Role The fourth level of factors in? uencing learning style is the person’s current job role. The task demands and pressures of a job shape a person’s adaptive orientation. Executive jobs, such as general management, that require a strong orientation to task accomplishment and decision making in uncertain emergent circumstances require an Accommodating learning style.Personal jobs, such as counseling and personnel administration, which require the establishment of personal relationships and effective communication with other people, demand a Diverging learning style. Information jobs, such as planning and research, which require data gathering and analysis, as well as conceptual modeling, require an Assimilating learning style. Technical jobs, such as bench engineering and production, require technical and problem-solving skills, which require a convergent learning orientation. Adaptive Competencies The ? fth and most immediate level of for ces that shapes learning style is the speci? c task or problem the person is currently working on. Each task we face requires a corresponding set of skills for effective performance.The effective matching of task demands and personal skills results in an adaptive competence. The Accommodative learning style encompasses a set of competencies that can best be termed Acting skills: Leadership, Initiative, and Action. The Diverging learning style is associated with Valuing skills: Relationship, Helping Others, and Sense Making. The Assimilating learning style is related to Thinking skills: Information Gathering, Information Analysis, and Theory Building. Finally, the Converging learning style is associated with Decision skills like Quantitative Analysis, Use of Technology, and Goal Setting (Kolb1984). 7 2. THE LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY PURPOSE The Learning Style Inventory (LSI) was created to ful? l two purposes: 1. To serve as an educational tool to increase individuals’ understa nding of the process of learning from experience and their unique individual approach to learning. By increasing awareness of how they learn, the aim is to increase learners’ capacity for meta-cognitive control of their learning process, enabling them to monitor and select learning approaches that work best for them in different learning situations. By providing a language for talking about learning styles and the learning process, the inventory can foster conversation among learners and educators about how to create the most effective learning environment for those involved.For this purpose, the inventory is best presented not as a test, but as an experience in understanding how one learns. Scores on the inventory should not be interpreted as de? nitive, but as a starting point for exploration of how one learns best. To facilitate this purpose, a self-scoring and interpretation book that explains the experiential learning cycle and the characteristics of the different learni ng styles, along with scoring and pro? ling instructions, is included with the inventory. 2. To provide a research tool for investigating experiential learning theory (ELT) and the characteristics of individual learning styles. This research can contribute to the broad advancement of experiential learning and, speci? ally, to the validity of interpretations of individual learning style scores. A research version of the instrument, including only the inventory to be scored by the researcher, is available for this purpose. The LSI is not a criterion-referenced test and is not intended for use to predict behavior for purposes of selection, placement, job assignment, or selective treatment. This includes not using the instrument to assign learners to different educational treatments, a process sometimes referred to as tracking. Such categorizations based on a single test score amount to stereotyping that runs counter to the philosophy of experiential learning, which emphasizes individua l uniqueness. When it is used in the simple, straightforward, and open way intended, the LSI usually provides a valuable self-examination and discussion that recognizes the uniqueness, complexity, and variability in individual approaches to learning. The danger lies in the rei? cation of learning styles into ? xed traits, such that learning styles become stereotypes used to pigeonhole individuals and their behavior. † (Kolb 1981a: 290-291) The LSI is constructed as a self-assessment exercise and tool for construct validation of ELT. Tests designed for predictive validity typically begin with a criterion, such as academic achievement, and work backward to identify items or tests with high criterion correlations.Even so, even the most sophisticated of these tests rarely rises above a . 5 correlation with the criterion. For example, while Graduate Record Examination Subject Test scores are better predictors of ? rst-year graduate school grades than either the General Test score o r undergraduate GPA, the combination of these three measures only produces multiple correlations with grades ranging from . 4 to . 6 in various ? elds (Anastasi and Urbina 1997). Construct validation is not focused on an outcome criterion, but on the theory or construct the test measures. Here the emphasis is on the pattern of convergent and discriminant theoretical predictions made by the theory. Failure to con? m predictions calls into question the test and the theory. â€Å"However, even if each of the correlations proved to be quite low, their cumulative effect would be to support the validity of the test and the underlying theory. † (Selltiz, Jahoda, Deutsch, and Cook 1960: 160) Judged by the standards of construct validity, ELT has been widely accepted as a useful framework for learning-centered educational innovation, including instructional design, curriculum development, and life-long learning. Field and job classi? cation studies viewed as a whole also show a patter n of results consistent with the ELT structure of knowledge theory. 8 LSI Technical ManualHISTORY Five versions of the Learning Style Inventory have been published over the last 35 years. During this time, attempts have been made to openly share information about the inventory, its scoring, and its technical characteristics with other interested researchers. The results of their research have been instrumental in the continuous improvement of the inventory. Learning Style Inventory-Version 1 (Kolb 1971, Kolb 1976) The original Learning Style Inventory (LSI 1) was created in 1969 as part of an MIT curriculum development project that resulted in the ? rst management textbook based on experiential learning (Kolb, Rubin, and McIntyre 1971).It was originally developed as an experiential educational exercise designed to help learners understand the process of experiential learning and their unique individual style of learning from experience. The term â€Å"learning style† was coin ed to describe these individual differences in how people learn. Items for the inventory were selected from a longer list of words and phrases developed for each learning mode by a panel of four behavioral scientists familiar with experiential learning theory. This list was given to a group of 20 graduate students who were asked to rate each word or phrase for social desirability. Attempting to select words that were of equal social desirability, a ? nal set of 12 items including a word or phrase for each learning mode was selected for pre-testing.Analysis showed that three of these sets produced nearly random responses and were thus eliminated, resulting in a ? nal version of the LSI with 9 items. These items were further re? ned through item-whole correlation analysis to include six scored items for each learning mode. Research with the inventory was stimulated by classroom discussions with students, who found the LSI to be helpful to them in understanding the process of experient ial learning and how they learned. From 1971 until it was revised in 1985, there were more than 350 published research studies using the LSI. Validity for the LSI 1 was established in a number of ? elds, including education, management, psychology, computer science, medicine, and nursing (Hickcox 1990, Iliff 1994).The results of this research with LSI 1 provided provided empirical support for the most complete and systematic statement of ELT, Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (Kolb 1984). Several studies of the LSI 1 identi? ed psychometric weaknesses of the instrument, particularly low internal consistency reliability and test-retest reliability. Learning Style Inventory-Version 2 (Kolb 1985) Low reliability coef? cients and other concerns about the LSI 1 led to a revision of the inventory in 1985 (LSI 2). Six new items chosen to increase internal reliability (alpha) were added to each scale, making 12 scored items on each scale. These chan ges increased scale alphas to an average of . 81 ranging from . 73 to . 88.Wording of all items was simpli? ed to a seventh grade reading level, and the format was changed to include sentence stems (e. g. , â€Å"When I learn†). Correlations between the LSI 1 and LSI 2 scales averaged . 91 and ranged from . 87 to . 93. A new more diverse normative reference group of 1446 men and women was created. Research with the LSI 2 continued to establish validity for the instrument. From 1985 until the publication of the LSI 3 1999, more than 630 studies were published, most using the LSI 2. While internal reliability estimates for the LSI 2 remained high in independent studies, test-retest reliability remained low. Learning Style Inventory-Version 2a (Kolb 1993)In 1991 Veres, Sims, and Locklear published a reliability study of a randomized version of the LSI 2 that showed a small decrease in internal reliability but a dramatic increase in test-retest reliability with the random scoring format. To study this format, a research version of the random format inventory (LSI 2a) was published in 1993. 9 Kolb Learning Style Inventory-Version 3 (Kolb 1999) In 1999 the randomized format was adopted in a revised self-scoring and interpretation booklet (LSI 3) that included a color-coded scoring sheet to simplify scoring. The new booklet was organized to follow the learning cycle, emphasizing the LSI as an â€Å"experience in learning how you learn. † New application information on teamwork, managing con? ct, personal and professional communication, and career choice and development were added. The LSI 3 continued to use the LSI 2 normative reference group until norms for the randomized version could be created. Kolb Learning Style Inventory-Version 3. 1 (Kolb 2005) The new LSI 3. 1 described here modi? ed the LSI 3 to include new normative data described below. This revision includes new norms that are based on a larger, more diverse and representative sample of 697 7 LSI users. The format, items, scoring, and interpretative booklet remain identical to KLSI 3. The only change in KLSI 3. 1 is in the norm charts used to convert raw LSI scores. FORMATThe Learning Style Inventory is designed to measure the degree to which individuals display the different learning styles derived from experiential learning theory. The form of the inventory is determined by three design parameters. First, the test is brief and straightforward, making it useful both for research and for discussing the learning process with individuals and providing feedback. Second, the test is constructed in such a way that individuals respond to it as they would respond to a learning situation: it requires them to resolve the tensions between the abstract-concrete and active-re? ective orientations. For this reason, the LSI format requires them to rank order their preferences for the abstract, concrete, active, and re? ective orientations.Third, and most obviously, it was hoped that the measures of learning styles would predict behavior in a way consistent with the theory of experiential learning. All versions of the LSI have had the same format—a short questionnaire (9 items for LSI 1 and 12 items for subsequent versions) that asks respondents to rank four sentence endings that correspond to the four learning modes— Concrete Experience (e. g. , experiencing), Re? ective Observation (re? ecting), Abstract Conceptualization (thinking), and Active Experimentation (doing). Items in the LSI are geared to a seventh grade reading level. The inventory is intended for use by teens and adults. It is not intended for use by younger children.The LSI has been translated into many languages, including, Arabic, Chinese, French, Japanese, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish, and Thai, and there have been many cross-cultural studies using it (Yamazaki 2002). The Forced-Choice Format of the LSI The format of the LSI is a forced-choice format that ranks an indiv idual’s relative choice preferences among the four modes of the learning cycle. This is in contrast to the more common normative, or free-choice, format, such as the widely used Likert scale, which rates absolute preferences on independent dimensions. The forced-choice format of the LSI was dictated by the theory of experiential learning and by the primary purpose of the instrument.ELT is a holistic, dynamic, and dialectic theory of learning. Because it is holistic, the four modes that make up the experiential learning cycle-CE, RO, AC, and AE- are conceived as interdependent. Learning involves resolving the creative tension among these learning modes in response to the speci? c learning situation. Since the two learning dimensions, AC-CE and AE-RO, are related dialectically, the choice of one pole involves not choosing the opposite pole. Therefore, because ELT postulates that learning in life situations requires the resolution of con? icts among interdependent learning modes , to be ecologically valid, the learning style assessment process should require a similar process of con? ct resolution in the choice of one’s preferred learning approach. ELT de? nes learning style not as a ? xed trait, but as a dynamic state arising from an individual’s preferential resolution of the dual dialectics of experiencing/conceptualizing and acting/re? ecting. â€Å"The stability and endurance of these states in individuals comes not solely from ? xed genetic qualities or characteristics of human beings: nor, for that matter, does it come from the stable ? xed demands of environmental circumstances. Rather, stable and enduring patterns of human individuality arise from consistent patterns of transaction between the individual and his or her 10 LSI Technical Manual environment.The way we process the possibilities of each new emerging event determines the range of choices and decisions we see. The choices and decisions we make to some extent determine the e vents we live through, and these events in? uence our future choices. Thus, people create themselves through the choice of actual occasions they live through. † (Kolb 1984: 63-64) The primary purpose of the LSI is to provide learners with information about their preferred approach to learning. The most relevant information for the learner is about intra-individual differences, his or her relative preference for the four learning modes, not inter-individual comparisons.Ranking relative preferences among the four modes in a forced-choice format is the most direct way to provide this information. While individuals who take the inventory sometimes report dif? culty in making these ranking choices, they report that the feedback they get from the LSI gives them more insight than had been the case when we used a normative Likert rating scale version. This is because the social desirability response bias in the rating scales fails to de? ne a clear learning style, that is, they say th ey prefer all learning modes. This is supported by Harland’s (2002) ? nding that feedback from a forced-choice test format was perceived as more accurate, valuable, and useful than feedback from a normative version.The adoption of the forced-choice method for the LSI has at times placed it in the center of an ongoing debate in the research literature about the merits of forced-choice instruments between what might be called â€Å"rigorous statisticians† and â€Å"pragmatic empiricists. † Statisticians have questioned the use of the forced-choice format because of statistical limitations, called ipsativity, that are the result of the ranking procedure. Since ipsative scores represent the relative strength of a variable compared to others in the ranked set, the resulting dependence among scores produces methodinduced negative correlations among variables and violates a fundamental assumption of classical test theory required for use of techniques such as analysis of variance and factor analysis-independence of error variance.Cornwell and Dunlap (1994) stated that ipsative scores cannot be factored and that correlation-based analysis of ipsative data produced uninterpretable and invalid results (cf. Hicks 1970, Johnson et al. 1988). Other criticisms include the point that ipsative scores are technically ordinal, not the interval scales required for parametric statistical analysis; that they produce lower internal reliability estimates and lower validity coef? cients (Barron 1996). While critics of forced-choice instruments acknowledge that these criticisms do not detract from the validity of intra-individual comparisons (LSI purpose one), they argue that ipsative scores are not appropriate for inter-individual comparisons, since inter-individual comparisons on a ranked ariable are not independent absolute preferences, but preferences that are relative to the other ranked variables in the set (Barron 1996, Karpatschof and Elkjaer 2000). Howeve r, since ELT argues that a given learning mode preference is relative to the other three modes, it is the comparison of relative not absolute preferences that the theory seeks to assess. The â€Å"pragmatic empiricists† argue that in spite of theoretical statistical arguments, normative and forced-choice variations of the same instrument can produce empirically comparable results. Karpatschof and Elkjaer (2000) advanced this case in their metaphorically titled paper â€Å"Yet the Bumblebee Flies. † With theory, simulation, and empirical data, they presented evidence for the comparability of ipsative and normative data.Saville and Wilson (1991) found a high correspondence between ipsative and normative scores when forced choice involved a large number of alternative dimensions. Normative tests also have serious limitations, which the forced-choice format was originally created to deal with (Sisson 1948). Normative scales are subject to numerous response biases—ce ntral tendency bias, in which respondents avoid extreme responses, acquiescence response, and social desirability responding-and are easy to fake. Forced- choice instruments are designed to avoid these biases by forcing choice among alternatives in a way that re? ects real live choice making (Hicks 1970, Barron 1996).Matthews and Oddy found large bias in the extremeness of positive and negative responses in normative tests and concluded that when sources of artifact are controlled, â€Å"individual differences in ipsative scores can be used to rank individuals meaningfully† (1997: 179). Pickworth and Shoeman (2000) found signi? cant response bias in two normative LSI formats developed by Marshall and Merritt (1986) and Geiger et al. (1993). Conversely, Beutell and Kressel (1984) found that social desirability contributed less than 4% of the variance in LSI scores, in spite of the fact that individual LSI items all had very high social desirability. 11 In addition, ipsative te sts can provide external validity evidence comparable to normative data (Barron 1996) or in some cases even better (Hicks 1970). For example, attempts to use normative rating versions of theLSI report reliability and internal validity data but little or no external validity (Pickworth and Shoeman 2000, Geiger et al. 1993, Romero et al. 1992, Marshall and Merritt 1986, Merritt and Marshall 1984). Characteristics of the LSI Scales The LSI assesses six variables: four primary scores that measure an individual’s relative emphasis on the four learning orientations—Concrete Experience (CE), Re? ective Observation (RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation (AE)—and two combination scores that measure an individual’s preference for abstractness over concreteness (AC-CE) and action over re? ection (AE-RO). The four primary scales of the LSI are ipsative because of the forced-choice format of the instrument.This results in negative correlatio ns among the four scales, the mean magnitude of which can be estimated (assuming no underlying correlations among them) by the formula -1/(m – 1) where m is the number of variables (Johnson et al. 1988). This results in a predicted average method- induced correlation of -. 33 among the four primary LSI scales. The combination scores AC-CE and AE-RO, however, are not ipsative. Forced- choice instruments can produce scales that are not ipsative (Hicks 1970; Pathi, Manning, and Kolb 1989). To demonstrate the independence of the combination scores and interdependence of the primary scores, Pathi, Manning, and Kolb (1989) had SPSS-X randomly ? ll out and analyze 1000 LSI’s according to the ranking instructions. While the mean intercorrelation among the primary scales was -. 3 as predicted, the correlation between AC-CE and AE-RO was +. 038. In addition, if AC-CE and AE-RO were ipsative scales, the correlation between the two scales would be -1. 0 according to the above form ula. Observed empirical relationships are always much smaller, e. g. +. 13 for a sample of 1591 graduate students (Freedman and Stumpf 1978), -. 09 for the LSI 2 normative sample of 1446 respondents (Kolb 1999b), -. 19 for a sample of 1296 MBA students (Boyatzis and Mainemelis 2000) and -. 21 for the normative sample of 6977 LSI’s for the KLSI 3. 1 described below. The independence of the two combination scores can be seen by examining some example scoring results.For example, when AC-CE or AE-RO on a given item takes a value of +2 (from, say, AC = 4 and CE = 2, or AC = 3 and CE = 1), the other score can take a value of +2 or -2. Similarly when either score takes a value of +1 (from 4 -3, 3-2, or 2-1), the other can take the values of +3, +1, -1, or -3. In other words, when AC-CE takes a particular value, AERO can take two to four different values, and the score on one dimension does not determine the score on the other. 12 LSI Technical Manual 3. NORMS FOR THE LSI VERSION 3. 1 New norms for the LSI 3. 1 were created from responses by several groups of users who completed the randomized LSI 3. These norms are used to convert LSI raw scale scores to percentile scores (see Appendix 1).The purpose of percentile conversions is to achieve scale comparability among an individual’s LSI scores (Barron 1996) and to de? ne cutpoints for de? ning the learning style types. Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations for KLSI 3. 1 scale scores for the normative groups. Table 2. KLSI 3. 1 Scores for Normative Groups SAMPLE TOTAL NORM GROUP On-line Users Research Univ. Freshmen Lib. Arts College Students Art College UG Research Univ. MBA Distance E-learning Adult UG N 6977 Mn. S. D. 5023 288 CE 25. 39 6. 43 25. 22 6. 34 23. 81 6. 06 24. 51 6. 39 28. 02 6. 61 25. 54 6. 44 23. 26 5. 73 RO 28. 19 7. 07 27. 98 7. 03 29. 82 6. 71 28. 25 7. 32 29. 51 7. 18 26. 98 6. 94 27. 64 7. 04 AC 32. 22 7. 29 32. 43 7. 32 33. 49 6. 91 32. 07 6. 22 29. 06 6. 4 33. 92 7. 37 34 . 36 6. 87 AE 34. 14 6. 68 34. 36 6. 65 32. 89 6. 36 35. 05 7. 08 33. 17 6. 52 33. 48 7. 06 34. 18 6. 28 AC-CE 6. 83 11. 69 7. 21 11. 64 9. 68 10. 91 7. 56 10. 34 1. 00 11. 13 8. 38 11. 77 11. 10 10. 45 AE-RO 5. 96 11. 63 6. 38 11. 61 3. 07 10. 99 6. 80 12. 37 3. 73 11. 49 6. 49 11. 92 6. 54 11. 00 221 813 328 304 TOTAL NORMATIVE GROUP Normative percentile scores for the LSI 3. 1 are based on a total sample of 6977 valid LSI scores from users of the instrument. This user norm group is composed of 50. 4% women and 49. 4% men. Their age range is 17-75, broken down into the following age-range groups: < 19 = 9. 8%, 19-24 = 17. %, 25-34 = 27%, 35-44 = 23%, 45-54 = 17. 2%, and >54 = 5. 8 %. Their educational level is as follows: primary school graduate = 1. 2%, secondary school degree = 32. 1%, university degree = 41. 4%, and post-graduate degree = 25. 3%. The sample includes college students and working adults in a wide variety of ? elds. It is made up primarily of U. S. residents (80%) with the remaining 20% of users residing in 64 different countries. The norm group is made up of six subgroups, the speci? c demographic characteristics of which are described below. 13 On-line Users This sample of 5023 is composed of individuals and groups who have signed up to take the LSI on-line.Group users include undergraduate and graduate student groups, adult learners, business management groups, military management groups, and other organizational groups. Half of the sample are men and half are women. Their ages range as follows: 55 = 8. 1 %. Their educational level is as follows: primary school graduate = 1. 7%, secondary school degree = 18. 2%, university degree = 45. 5%, and postgraduate degree = 34. 6%. Most of the on-line users (66%) reside in the U. S. with the remaining 34% living in 64 different countries, with the largest representations from Canada (317), U. K. (212), India (154), Germany (100), Brazil (75), Singapore (59), France (49), and Japan (42). Research U niversity FreshmenThis sample is composed of 288 entering freshmen at a top research university. 53% are men and 47% are women. All are between the ages of 17 and 22. More than 87% of these students intend to major in science or engineering. Liberal Arts College Students Data for this sample were provided by Kayes (2005). This sample includes 221 students (182 undergraduates and 39 part-time graduate students) enrolled in business courses at a private liberal arts college. Their average age is 22, ranging from 18 to 51. 52% are male and 48% are female. Art College Undergraduates This sample is composed of 813 freshmen and graduating students from three undergraduate art colleges. Half of the sample are men and half are women.Their average age is 20, distributed as follows: 35 = 1%. Research University MBA Students This sample is composed of 328 full-time (71%) and part-time (29%) MBA students in a research university management school. 63% are men and 37% women. Their average age is 27, distributed as follows: 19-24 = 4. 1%, 25-34 = 81. 3%, 35-44 = 13. 8%, 45-54 = 1%. Distance E-learning Adult Undergraduate Students This sample is composed of 304 adult learners enrolled in an e-learning distance education undergraduate degree program at a large state university. 56% are women and 44% men. Their average age is 36, distributed as follows: 19-24 = 6. 3%, 25-34 = 37. 5%, 35-44 = 40. %, 45-54 = 14. 5%, and > 55 = 1. 6%. CUT-POINTS FOR LEARNING STYLE TYPES The four basic learning style types—Accommodating, Diverging, Assimilating, and Converging-are created by dividing the AC-CE and AE-RO scores at the ? ftieth percentile of the total norm group and plotting them on the Learning Style Type Grid (Kolb 1999a: 6). The cut point for the AC-CE scale is +7, and the cut point for the AE-RO scale is +6. The Accommodating type would be de? ned by an AC-CE raw score =7, the Diverging type by AC-CE =7, and the Assimilating type by AC-CE >=8 and AE-RO +12) while the re? ective regions are de? ned by percentiles less than 33. 33% (